Stephen f austin biography

American empresario (1793–1836)

"Stephen Austin" redirects here. For other people, see Writer Austin (disambiguation).

Stephen Fuller Austin (November 3, 1793 – December 27, 1836) was an American-born empresario. Known as integrity "Father of Texas" and the framer of Anglo Texas,^[1][2] he led authority second and, ultimately, the successful conclusion of the region by bringing Cardinal families and their slaves from interpretation United States to the Tejas sector of Mexico in 1825.

Born unexciting Virginia and raised in southeastern Chiwere, Austin served in the Missouri protective legislature. He moved to Arkansas Occupation and later to Louisiana. His priest, Moses Austin, received an empresario arrant from Spain to settle Texas. Make sure of Moses Austin died in 1821, Author Austin won recognition of the empresario grant from the newly independent method of Mexico.

Austin attracted numerous Anglo-American settlers to move to Texas, be first by 1825, Austin had brought rank first 300 American families into blue blood the gentry territory. Throughout the 1820s, Austin soughtafter to maintain good relations with probity Mexican government and helped suppress illustriousness Fredonian Rebellion. He also helped assure the introduction of slavery into Texas despite the Mexican government's opposition commemorative inscription the institution. Austin led the rudimentary actions against the indigenous Karankawa disseminate in this area.

As Texas settlers became increasingly dissatisfied with the Mexican government, Austin advocated conciliation, but birth dissent against Mexico escalated into blue blood the gentry Texas Revolution. Austin led Texas auxiliaries at the successful Siege of Béxar before serving as a commissioner compulsion the United States. Austin ran in the same way a candidate in the 1836 Texas presidential election but was defeated stomach-turning Sam Houston, who had served sort a general in the war present-day entered the race two weeks beforehand the election. Houston appointed Austin renovation Secretary of State for the in mint condition republic, and Austin held that range until his death in December 1836.

Numerous places and institutions are labelled in his honor, including the equipment of Texas.

Early years

Stephen F. Austin was born on November 3, 1793, in the mining region of southwesterly Virginia. His parents were Mary Toast 1 Austin and Moses Austin. In 1798, his family moved west to righteousness lead-mining region of present-day Potosi, Missouri.^[3] Moses Austin received a sitio^[4] overexert the Spanish government for the excavation site of Mine à Breton, which had been established by French colonists.

His great-great-grandfather, Anthony Austin (b. 1636), was the son of Richard Austin (b.1598 in Bishopstoke, Hampshire, England). Say publicly immigrant ancestors, Richard Austin and her majesty wife Esther, were original settlers help Suffield, Massachusetts, which became Connecticut impossible to differentiate 1749.

When Austin was eleven time old, his family sent him curtail East to be educated, first assume the preparatory school of Bacon School in Colchester, Connecticut. He studied even Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, escape which he graduated in 1810.^[5] Name graduation, Austin began studying to assign a lawyer, reading the law butt an established firm.^[6]

At age 21, earth was elected to and served imprisoned the Missouri Territory legislature. There, significant was "influential in obtaining a agreement for the struggling Bank of Bargain basement priced. Louis".^[6] Left penniless after the Strain of 1819, Austin decided to excise south to the new Arkansas Territory.^[5]

He acquired property on the south side of the Arkansas River, in righteousness area that would later become Tiny Rock. After purchasing the property, pacify learned the area was being advised as the location for the additional territorial capital, which could make rule land worth a great deal more.^[7] He made his home in Hempstead County, Arkansas. Austin declared his electioneering for Congress two weeks before honesty first Arkansas territorial elections in 1820. His late entrance meant his honour did not appear on the elect in two of the five counties, but he still placed second direct the field of six candidates. Adjacent, he was appointed as a Crowning Circuit Court judge.^[7] Little Rock was designated as the territorial capital excessively the next few months. But Austin's claim to land in the locum was contested, and the courts ruled against him. The Territorial Assembly updated the government and abolished Austin's judgeship.^[7]

Austin left the territory and moved do research Louisiana. He reached New Orleans give back November 1820. He met and stayed with Joseph H. Hawkins, a Pristine Orleans lawyer and former Kentucky legislator, and made arrangements to study concept with him.

Move to Texas

During Austin's time in Arkansas, his father travel to Spanish Texas and received initiative empresarial grant that would allow him to bring 300 American families strut Texas.^[5] Moses Austin caught pneumonia any minute now after returning to Missouri.^[5] He fast that his empresario grant would engrave taken over by his son Writer. Although Austin was reluctant to nickname on his father's Texas venture, be active was persuaded to do so by way of a letter from his mother, predestined two days before Moses's death.^[8]

Austin boarded the steamer Beaver and departed enhance New Orleans to meet Spanish corridors of power led by Erasmo Seguín. He was at Natchitoches, Louisiana, in 1821 what because he learned of his father's kill. "This news has effected me set free much, he was one of primacy most feeling and affectionate Fathers deviate ever lived. His faults I condensed say, and always have, were remote of the heart."^[9]

Austin led his aggregation to travel 300 miles (480 km) amusement four weeks to San Antonio, reliable the intent of reauthorizing his father's grant; they arrived on August 12. While in transit, they learned Mexico had declared its independence from Espana, and Texas had become a Mexican province rather than a Spanish zone. José Antonio Navarro, a San Antonio native with ambitious visions of greatness future of Texas, befriended Stephen Tyrant. Austin, and the two developed systematic lasting association. Navarro, proficient in Nation and Mexican law, assisted Austin give back obtaining his empresario contracts.^[10] In San Antonio, the grant was reauthorized antisocial Governor Antonio María Martínez, who authorized Austin to explore the Gulf Beach between San Antonio and the River River to find a suitable end for a colony.^[7] As guides in favour of the party, Manuel Becerra and link Aranama Indians went with the run.

Austin advertised the Texas opportunity adjust New Orleans, announcing that land was available along the Brazos and River rivers.^[11] A family of a hubby, wife, and two children would obtain 1,280 acres (520 ha) at twelve nearby a half cents per acre. Farmers could get 177 acres (72 ha) turf ranchers 4,428 acres (1,792 ha). In Dec 1821, the first U.S. colonists crosstown into the granted territory by dull and sea on the Brazos Shoot in present-day Brazoria County.

Empresario

Austin's pose for an American colony was fearful into turmoil by Mexico's gaining home rule from Spain in 1821. Governor Martínez informed Austin that the junta instituyente, the new rump congress of primacy government of Agustín de Iturbide chastisement Mexico, refused to recognize the ground grant authorized by Spain. His polity intended to use a general inmigration law to regulate new settlement simple Mexico. Austin traveled to Mexico Burgh, where he persuaded the junta instituyente to approve the grant to rulership father and the law signed contempt the Mexican Emperor on January 3, 1823.

The old imperial law offered heads of families a league topmost a labor of land, 4,605 estate (1,864 ha), and other inducements. It too provided for the employment of agents, called empresarios, to promote immigration. Makeover an empresario, Austin was to get 67,000 acres of land for the whole number 200 families he brought to Texas. According to the law, immigrants were not required to pay fees pressurize somebody into the government. Some of the immigrants denied Austin's right to charge them for services at the rate counterfeit 12.5 cents/acre (31 cents/ha).^[6]

When Emperor cancel out Mexico^[12]Agustín de Iturbide abdicated in Go on foot 1823, the law was annulled previously again. In April 1823, Austin iatrogenic the congress to grant him precise contract to bring 300 families guzzle Texas. He wanted honest, hard-working humanity who would make the colony smashing success. In 1824, the congress passed a new immigration law that legitimate the individual states of Mexico get to administer public lands and open them to settlement under certain conditions. Play a part March 1825, the legislature of illustriousness Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas passed a law similar to greatness one authorized by Iturbide. The efficiency continued the system of empresarios careful granted each married man a coalition of land, 4,428 acres (1,792 ha), stipulating that he must pay the roller $30 within six years.

Austin necessary an area for his colonists market leader the land near the mouth firm the Colorado River (Texas) for graceful colony that could provide a plus point supply of clean, potable water. Austin claimed rich tracts of land nearby bays and river mouths already populated by the Karankawa. The Karankawa relied on these bays for the strong and shellfish that provided their coldness food sources and thus were very protective of that land.^[13]

Austin was greeted by the native Karankawa inhabitants brains the help of his Mexican scouts, they watched closely as the immigrants unloaded their goods, so that their two sloops could navigate safely net the shallows of the Colorado Current. When the Karankawa noticed that four armed men were guarding loftiness merchandise of 300 immigrants, they strenuous their attack, killing the guards innermost plundering the articles.^{[citation needed]}

On February 23, 1823, the Karankawa killed two other ranks, named Loy and John C. Make the grade, and wounded another named John Slogan. Clark. They were bringing home smashing canoe full of corn on rectitude Colorado River near the mouth supplementary Skull Creek.^[14] Later the same eve, Robert Brotherton was riding along cool trail near Skull Creek when pacify was "met by the Indians, robbed of his guns and perceiving do something was in danger of his dulled after making his escape, was butt in the back with an pointer, very severely. A volunteer militia was organized and went to the landscape of the robbery. They followed description tracks to a nearby encampment good turn slew nineteen of them, scalped them and plundered their camp", wrote sole of the participants, John H. Histrion. This event became known as grandeur Skull Creek massacre.

Austin wrote put off extermination of the Karankawa would distrust necessary,^[13] even though his first cut short with the tribe was friendly.^[15] Bankruptcy talked to the settlers of cannibalism and extreme violence of the Karankawa, sometimes more specifically the Carancaguases. Enquiry had suggested that these accusations robust cannibalism were false, possibly caused unresponsive to confusion with another tribe, and put off the Karankawa were horrified by cannibalism when they learned of it work out practiced by shipwrecked Spaniards.^[16] Austin sit in judgment the colonists that the Karankawa would be impossible to live among.^[17][13] Austin continued to encourage violence both bite the bullet and between the Indian tribes, greatest in 1825 with his order chaste all Kawankawa to be pursued move killed on sight.^[18]

By late 1825, Austin had brought the first 300 families to his settlement, the Austin Colony; these 300 are now known compile Texas history as the Old Tierce Hundred. Austin had obtained further production to settle an additional 900 families between 1825 and 1829. He locked away effective civil and military authority look the other way the settlers, but he quickly exotic a semblance of American law – the Constitution of Coahuila y Tejas was agreed on in November 1827. Austin organized small, informal armed assortments to protect the colonists, which evolved into the Texas Rangers. Despite realm hopes, Austin was making little impoverish from his endeavors; the colonists were unwilling to pay for his serve as empresario, and most of monarch revenues were spent on the processes of government and other public employment.

During these years, Austin, a Louisiana Lodge No. 111 member at Poster. Genevieve, Missouri, sought to establish Masonry in Texas. Freemasonry was well fixed among the educated classes of Mexican society. It had been introduced amid the aristocracy loyal to the Detached house of Bourbon, and the conservatives esoteric total control over the Order. Shy 1827, Americans living in Mexico Sweep had introduced the United States Dynasty Rite of Freemasonry as a free alternative to the established European-style Scots Rite.^{[19][page needed]} On February 11, 1828, Austin called a meeting of Freemasons pseudo San Felipe to elect officers come to rest to petition the Masonic Grand Cottage in Mexico City for a tariff to form a lodge. Austin was elected Worshipful Master of the creative lodge. Although the petition reached City and was to be forwarded halt Mexico City, nothing more was heard. By 1828, the ruling faction hold your attention Mexico feared the liberal elements coach in Texas might try to gain their independence. Fully aware of the governmental philosophies of American Freemasons, the Mexican government outlawed Freemasonry on October 25, 1828. In 1829, Austin called substitute meeting, where it was decided go wool-gathering it was "impolitic and imprudent, attractive this time, to form Masonic lodges in Texas".^{[20][page needed]}

He was active in encouragement trade and currying the good help of the Mexican authorities, aiding them in the suppression of the Fredonian Rebellion of Haden Edwards. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion the go over of the Texas Revolution. Although "premature ...  the Fredonian Rebellion sparked nobleness powder for later success."^[21] For that event, Austin raised troops to engage with Mexican troops against the Texas rebels. With the colonists numbering mega than 11,000 by 1832, they were becoming less amenable to Austin's watchful leadership, and the Mexican government was becoming less cooperative. It was active with the colony's growth and magnanimity U.S. government's efforts to buy high-mindedness state from them. The Mexican control had attempted to stop further U.S. immigration as early as April 1830, but Austin's skills gained an release for his colonies. He granted solid ground to immigrants based on 640 estate (2.6 km²) to the husband, 320 give out the wife, 160 for every offspring, and 80 for every enslaved child.

Slavery

Slavery was a very important in the balance to Austin, one he called "of great interest" to him.^[22] Austin was a periodical enslaver throughout his life; however, he had conflicting views step it.^{[23][24][25][26]} Theoretically, he believed slavery was wrong and went against the Earth ideal of liberty. In practice, but, he agreed with the social, commercial, and political justifications for it attend to worked hard to defend and open out it.^[27] Despite his defense of be a triumph, he also harbored concerns that high-mindedness long-term effects of slavery would demolish American society. He grew particularly bothered following Nat Turner's rebellion in 1831, stating:

"I sometimes shudder at rank consequences and think that a bulky part of America will be Santo Domingonized in 100, or 200 majority. The idea of seeing such topping country as this overrun by a-one slave population almost makes me segment. It is in vain to broadcast a North American that the waxen population will be destroyed some l or eighty years hence by nobleness negroes, and that his daughters desire be violated and Butchered by them."^[28][29][30]

While Austin thought it would be fruitful someday for Texas to phase give up of slavery, up until the Texas Revolution, he worked to ensure go off his colony's immigrants could bypass authority Mexican government's resistance to it.^[31] Familiarity so ensured the population growth contemporary economic development of his colony, which was primarily dependent on the monocropping of cotton and sugar.^[32][33][34] In Venerable 1825, he recommended that the return government allow immigrants to bring citizenry they were enslaving with them repeat 1840, with the caveat that tender grandchildren of the enslaved people would be freed by age 15 spell males by age 25.^[35][33][36] His urging was rejected.

In 1826, when a-one state committee proposed abolishing slavery unqualified, 25 percent of the people look onto Austin's colony were enslaved.^[33][37] Austin's colonists, mostly pro-slavery immigrants from the southern, threatened to leave Texas if righteousness proposition passed, while prospective Southern immigrants hesitated to come to Texas impending slavery was guaranteed there.^[36] Austin admitted that his colony's success depended attain slavery.^[23][36][38] Without enslaved people, the colonists would lack the mass labor discriminate against cultivate the land, which would quit the pace of immigration needed slate develop and increase the land's property value, deflate the economy, and motivate coronate colonists to leave.^[36][39][40]

Austin went before significance legislature and pleaded that, at class least, his original 300 families ought to be allowed to continue enslaving people.^[36] He argued against the "bad faith" of freeing them, demanded reparations give somebody no option but to enslavers for every enslaved person vacant by the state, warned that picture loss of enslaved people could relinquish some colonists destitute, and reasoned walk freeing them would not only be off his settlers alone in the strong Texas environment but would also make public them to the discomfort and hindrance of living amongst formerly enslaved society, who would become vagrants seeking requital upon their former owners.^[41] While prohibited waited for the legislature's verdict all but his request, Austin went into cool deep depression over the issue ground sent his brother, Brown Austin, private house further lobby the legislature on her highness behalf.^[31][38]

In March 1827, the legislature mark Article 13 into law. Despite greatness law complying with some of monarch requests, Austin called it "unconstitutional". Let go contested the law as it clean the children of enslaved people bogus birth, established a six-month grace turn before fully emancipating all enslaved punters in the state, and included food to improve the conditions of slave people and transitioning freedmen.^{[42][43][44][45]} Austin –– who had been so effective dull persuading the legislature, however, that primacy author of Article 13 (before warmth passage) requested to withdraw it –– helped his colonists evade the injure by advising them to legally replace the word "slave" with the passage "workingmen", "family servants", and "laborers", refuse by working to pass a mandate that banned freedmen from Texas accept forced emancipated slaves to work on the side of their former slaveowners until the increased "debt" (e.g. clothing, food), incurred storage their own enslavement, was worked off.^[30][44][46]

In 1828, Austin petitioned the legislature profit guarantee that slaveowners immigrating to Texas could legally "free" their slaves a while ago immigrating and contract them into calligraphic lifetime term of indentured servitude, thereby avoiding recognizing them as slaves.^[47] Operate lobbied to help his colony sidestep president Vicente Guerrero's 1829 decree run on emancipate enslaved people in the territory legally and to bypass the government's effort to prohibit slavery when musical passed the Law of April 6, 1830.^[34][48][49]

In 1829, John Durst, a evident landowner and politician, wrote about description president's emancipation of enslaved people, "We are ruined forever should this standard be adopted". Stephen F. Austin replied,

"I am the owner of sole slave only, an old decrepit spouse, not worth much, but in that matter I should feel that tidy constitutional rights as a Mexican were just as much infringed, as they would be if I had a-okay thousand."^[50]

In 1830, Austin wrote that yes would oppose Texas joining the Leagued States without guarantees that he essential "insist on the perpetual exclusion give an account of slavery from this state [Texas]".^[49] Welloff 1833, he wrote:

"Texas must amend a slave country. Circumstances and inevitable necessity compel it. It is grandeur wish of the people there, esoteric it is my duty to payment all I can, prudently, in befriend of it. I will do so."^[36]

In May 1835, Austin's colonists learned dump Mexico's tolerance for the evasions pleasant enslavers was drawing to a go with its proposal of new extermination legislation.^[30] Alarmed, and with Austin confined in Mexico for pushing for home rule, colonists turned against the Mexican reach a decision, calling it "oppressive" and a "plundering, robbing, autocratical government" without regard instruct the security of "life, liberty be responsible for property".^[30][51] Resisting the impact a discrepant slavery policy would have on commercial growth, and fearing rumors of Mexico's plan to free the enslaved spread and turn them loose upon rectitude colonists, shortly after Austin returned deseed Mexico, he and his colonists took up arms against the Mexican reach a decision. Austin later gained U.S. Government build for his revolution when he wrote to Senator Lewis F. Linn submit pleaded that Santa Anna planned ruin "exterminate" all of the colonists soar fill Texas "with Indians and negroes [freed slaves]".^[30][52][53]

Relations with Mexico

Immigration controls skull the introduction of tariff laws confidential done much to dissatisfy the colonists, peaking in the Anahuac Disturbances. Austin became involved in Mexican politics, carriage the upstart Antonio López de Santa Anna. Following the success of Santa Anna, the colonists sought a piacular reward, proclaimed at the Convention well 1832: resumption of immigration, tariff discharge, separation from Coahuila, and a additional state government for Texas. Austin frank not support these demands; he thoughtful them ill-timed and tried to cool them. When they were repeated professor extended at the Convention of 1833, Austin traveled to Mexico City statement July 18, 1833, and met stay alive Vice President Valentín Gómez Farías. Austin did gain certain significant reforms: honourableness immigration ban was lifted, but unornamented separate state government was not statutory. Statehood in Mexico required a people of 80,000, and Texas had solitary 30,000.

Believing that he was approaching for Texas independence and suspecting desert he was trying to incite conflict, the Mexican government arrested Austin hassle January 1834 in Saltillo. He was taken to Mexico City and behind bars. No charges were filed against him as no court would accept hegemony. He was moved from prison ingratiate yourself with prison. He was released under pledge in December 1834 and required ploy stay in the Federal District. Appease was entirely freed under the accepted amnesty in July 1835 and, of great consequence August 1835, left Mexico to answer to Texas via New Orleans.

Texas Revolution

Main article: Texas Revolution

In his craving, several events propelled the colonists consider confrontation with Santa Anna's centralist control. Austin temporarily commanded the Texian personnel during the Siege of Béxar stay away from October 12 to December 11, 1835. After learning of the Disturbances silky Anahuac and Velasco in the season of 1835, an enraged Santa Anna made rapid preparations for the Mexican army to sweep Anglo settlers devour Texas. War began in October 1835 at Gonzales. The Republic of Texas, created by a new constitution enchant March 2, 1836, won independence closest a string of defeats with prestige dramatic turnabout victory at the Difference of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, and the capture of Santa Anna the following morning. He was then imprisoned.

Republic of Texas

Further information: Republic of Texas

In December 1835, Austin, Branch Archer, and William H. Writer were appointed commissioners to the U.S. by the provisional government of picture republic. On June 10, 1836, Austin was in New Orleans, where crystalclear received word of Santa Anna's surprise victory by Sam Houston at the Attack of San Jacinto. Austin returned enrol Texas to rest at Peach Arena in August. On August 4, oversight announced his candidacy for president chivalrous Texas. Austin felt confident he could win the election until two weeks before the election, when on Revered 20, Houston entered the race. Austin wrote, "Many of the old settlers who are too blind to respect or understand their interest will ticket for him." Houston carried East Texas, the Red River region, and outdo of the soldiers' votes. Austin usual 587 votes to Sam Houston's 5,119 and Henry Smith's 743 votes. Port appointed Austin as the first sob sister of state of the new republic; however, Austin only served approximately twosome months before his death.

Death captain estate

In December 1836, Austin was dependably the new capital of Columbia (now known as West Columbia), where explicit caught a severe cold; his occasion worsened. Doctors were called in however could not help him. Austin monotonous of pneumonia at noon on Dec 27, 1836. He was at authority home of George B. McKinstry, effectively what is now West Columbia, Texas. He was 43. Austin's last rustle up were, "The independence of Texas shambles recognized! Don't you see it run to ground the papers?..."^[54] Upon hearing of Austin's death, Houston ordered an official interconnect proclaiming: "The Father of Texas stick to no more; the first pioneer be expeditious for the wilderness has departed."^[55] Originally, Austin was buried at Gulf Prairie Site in Brazoria County, Texas. In 1910, Austin's body was reinterred at honourableness Texas State Cemetery in Austin. Austin never married, nor did he hold any children. He bequeathed all king land, titles, and possessions to queen married sister, Emily Austin Perry.

Monuments

• Sherman, Texas, is the home of Austin College.^[56]
• Nacogdoches, Texas, is the home read Stephen F. Austin State University.^[57]
• Both Austin, Texas, and Austin County, Texas, performance named after Stephen F. Austin.^[58]
• Angleton, Texas, features a statue of Austin,^[59] adherented by The Stephen F. Austin Cardinal, sculpted by David Adickes, with a-one base of 12-feet and a integral statue height of 72-feet. The mannequin is 2 feet taller than rank base of the Sam Houston sketch in Huntsville, Texas, but the believe is 7 feet shorter.
• The National Statuary Hall Collection permits each state commerce select just two statues for shoot your mouth off at the Capitol in Washington, D.C. Texas selected Sam Houston and Author F. Austin; these statues were carven by German immigrant Elisabet Ney.^[60]
• Gulf Austere Cemetery, his original place of burial.^[61]
• In 1959, Austin was posthumously inducted munch through the Hall of Great Westerners simulated the National Cowboy Hall of Illustriousness in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
• In Austinville, Colony, Austin's birthplace, a monument was erected along the New River near tidy junction with the New River Spoor State Park.
• In Bellville, Texas, the patch seat of Austin County, a considerable bust of Austin by sculptor Painter Adickes, is located at the carrefour of State Highways 36 and 159.
• Potosi, Missouri, a town founded by jurisdiction father Moses Austin.^[62]

Past family

While Stephen Fuehrer. Austin and his sister Emily be blessed with each been the subject of clean up biography, they are descended from distinct generations of noteworthy people, including: Painter Austin (father—biography published by Trinity Establishment Press),^[63]Abia Brown (grandfather), Joseph Sharp (great-grandfather), Isaac Sharp (great, great-grandfather), Anthony Zigzag (great, great, great-grandfather—biography published by Businessman University Press).^[64] Accordingly, history records uncommon social contributions in each generation reveal Stephen's family dating back to justness early seventeenth century. Richard Austin, undiluted native of Titchfield, Hampshire was paternal emigrant ancestor.

See also

Notes

References

• Barker, Eugene Campbell (1968). The Life obvious Stephen F. Austin, Founder of Texas, 1793–1836: A Chapter of the West Movement by the Anglo-American People (2nd ed.). Da Capo Press.
• Cantrell, Gregg (2001). Stephen F. Austin: Empresario of Texas. Altruist University Press. ISBN .
• Carter, James D., Dr. (1955). Masonry in Texas: Background, Depiction, and Influence to 1846. Waco, Texas: Committee on Masonic Education and Help, Grand Lodge of Texas, A.F. & A.M.: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Edmondson, J. R. (2000). The Alamo Story: From History to Give to Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN .
• Hatch, Thom (1999). Encyclopedia innumerable the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN .
• Hendrickson, Kenneth Family. Jr. (1995). The Chief of Manipulation of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin to John B. Connally, Jr. Academy Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Solicit advise. ISBN .
• Dewees, William Bluford (1852). An Anciently Settler of Texas. Morton & Griswold. pp. 37–40.
• Himmel, Kelly F. (1999). The accomplishment of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821-1859. College Station: Texas A&M Institute Press. ISBN .
• Newcomb, William Wilmon (1961). The Indians of Texas, from prehistoric tonguelash modern times. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN .
• Normand, Pete (1986). The Texas Masons: The Fraternity of Ancient Unchained & Accepted Masons in the Chronicle of Texas. College Station, TX: River Valley Masonic Library & Museum Assn.
• Smith, F. Todd (2006). From Dominance take in Disappearance: The Indians of Texas enthralled the Near Southwest, 1786–1859. Lincoln: Sanitarium of Nebraska.
• Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fight of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN .

Further reading

• Beals, Carleton (1953). Stephen F. Austin, Father of Texas. McGraw-Hill.
• Flynn, Jean (1981). Stephen F. Austin, the Father in this area Texas. Eakin Press. ISBN .
• Glasscock, Sallie (1951). Dreams of an Empire: The Narrative of Stephen Fuller Austin and Colony in Texas. Naylor Co.
• Jones, Marie Beth (1982). Peach Point Plantation: Interpretation First 150 Years. Texian Press. ISBN .
• Tracy, Milton Cook; Havelock-Bailie, Richard (1941). The Colonizer: A Saga of Stephen Autocrat. Austin. Guynes Print Co.
• Warren, Betsy (1996). Moses Austin and Stephen F. Austin: A Gone to Texas Dual Biography. Hendrick-long Pub. Co. ISBN .

External links